Feudal society in China placed great emphasis on education, primarily reflected in two aspects: (1) Highlighting the esteemed status of teachers and promoting respect for teachers across society. Xunzi proposed equating heaven, ancestors, and rulers/teachers, believing that rulers/teachers were fundamental to governing the country. The famous Tang dynasty thinker Han Yu also pointed out that the role of teachers was to “transmit truths, impart knowledge, and resolve doubts,” emphasizing that as long as knowledge and truths existed, so would teachers. In traditional Chinese schools, ceremonies such as “Shicai (释菜)” and “Shidian (释奠)” were held at the beginning of school or during its establishment to worship former sages and teachers. (2) Emphasizing the sacred status of education and guiding society to revere education. During the long feudal society, both emperors and subjects regarded education as a sacred profession, not to be despised or desecrated. The feudal state also used the imperial examination system to attract scholars to participate in politics, stimulating a cultural mindset of reverence for education.

The basic characteristics of traditional Chinese education were emphasizing moral cultivation over science and technology, valuing the inheritance between teachers and students rather than creativity and invention. The primary goal of education in ancient Chinese was to cultivate various levels of officers, rather than diverse talents needed for national development. The Chinese character “教” (educate, teach) signifies a hand holding a stick to hit a child, with two marks on the child’s head indicating that the original meaning of “education” was to discipline children with a stick to make them follow the will of their elders.

1.1 Ancient Chinese School Education

Records indicate that schools in China appeared during the Xia Dynasty (2070 BC-1600 BC). However, the earliest schools verified by archaeological evidence date back to the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC-1046 BC), as inscriptions on oracle bones record the names of Shang Dynasty schools.

During the Zhou Dynasty (1045 BC – 356BC), the education system became more refined, and the school structure became more comprehensive. The schools of the Western Zhou (1045BC – 771BC) period were also divided into two types: “Guoxue” (国学), central government-established schools for training the children of nobles and “Xiangxue” (乡学), state government-established schools for educating commoners’ children. Slaves’ children were not allowed to attend schools. Students learned in four areas: morality, conduct, arts, and etiquette. Specific subjects included rites (礼), music and dance (乐), archery (射), chariot driving (御), history (书), and mathematics (数).

In the Spring and Autumn Period (770 BC – 476 BC), some intellectuals began to gather and teach, promoting their thoughts and ideas, leading to the emergence of private schools. The earliest private school founder was Confucius, whose educational philosophy emphasized poetry, history, rites, and music, and also valued the cultivation of speech, virtue, politics, and literature.

By the Han Dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD), schools were divided into state schools and private schools, with state schools being the most developed. In the state schools, there were the “Taixue” (太学) established by the central government and other schools run by local governments. Taixue, the first university in Chinese history, was officially founded in 124 BC by Emperor Wu of Han, enrolling around 50 students. By the time of Emperor Cheng of Han, the number had increased to 3,000. In 176 AD, Emperor Ling of Han established the first specialized school in China, teaching prose, calligraphy, and painting, similar to modern cultural and arts colleges, with more than a thousand students. Local state schools gradually developed, and by 3 AD, from the central to local levels to villages, the feudal educational system in China had been formally established.

During the Sui and Tang dynasties (510AD– 907AD), the “Guozijian” (国子监, Imperial College) was established as the Ministry of Education, creating a more comprehensive educational system. Not only were there universities, but also specialized colleges, such as medical schools and preparatory schools. A quota system was implemented for admissions, and subject-specific exams were established. Besides officials’ children, commoners’ children could also attend school. Students had to undergo monthly exams, annual exams, and graduation exams. Failing the exams required retaking the course and continuous failure would lead to expulsion. Students enjoyed meals at school but had to perform the “Shuxiu” (束脩) ceremony for their teachers. “Shuxiu” (束脩) was the tradition of students giving a gift to their teacher upon the commencement of their studies which rooted in Confucian educational principles and reflects the high value placed on learning and respect for teachers in Chinese culture. During the Tang dynasty, there were also many foreign students, including those from Silla^[1], Goguryeo^[2], and Japan, with Japanese students being the most numerous.

By the Ming (1368 – 1644) and Qing (1616 – 1911) dynasties, Guozijian had become the sole highest educational institution in the country. Students at Guozijian were divided into four categories: “Jujian” (举监), selected by the government; “Gongjian” (贡监), selected from local schools; “Yin Jian” (荫监), children of high-ranking officials admitted through privilege; and “Lijian” (例监), commoners’ children admitted through donation. Foreign students were called “Yisheng” (夷生). The curriculum mainly focused on Confucian classics. Students could advance to higher levels through exams, typically graduating in four years. The Ming dynasty’s Guozijian implemented “huisi” (会食) and “lishi” (历事). Huisi was a formal meal where teachers and students dined according to set positions and etiquette to cultivate strict behavior. Lishi was akin to modern internships, where students were assigned to various government offices to learn administrative affairs, preparing for official duties. Internships lasted for three or six months, with students returning to their dormitories at night. Internship performance was graded as excellent, medium, or poor. Excellent students were selected for positions, medium students continued their internships, and poor students returned to their studies. Guozijian students enjoyed substantial benefits, with the state providing for their living expenses, including supporting their families if married and granting money for marriage if unmarried. Travel expenses for home visits were also covered. However, their thoughts and behavior were strictly controlled, with regulations governing classes, daily routines, meals, clothing, bathing, and leave. Violations were met with corporal punishment or even execution for severe infractions.