Chapter 2: Theories of Physical Activity Motivation

Chapter Overview

Physical Activity Motivation Theories

Table 2.1

Theories of Physical Activity Motivation

Social Cognitive Theories

Health Action Process Approach

Table 2.2

Temporal Self-Regulation Theory

Table 2.3

Humanistic Theories

Self-Determination Theory

Table 2.4

Dual-Process Theories

Theory of Hedonic Motivation

Table 2.5

Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity

Table 2.6

Maintenance Theories

Theoretical Explanations for Maintenance of Behavior Change

Figure 2.1

Table 2.7

Conclusion

Learning Exercises

 

Theories of Physical Activity Motivation

Chapter Overview

• This chapter describes four types of behavior theories and presents discrete examples of each type of theory as applied to physical activity
• This chapter provides a snapshot of physical activity motivation theories which are continually changing over time to account for new scientific findings as well as innovations in measurement and analytics.

Physical Activity Motivation Theories

• The abundant physical and mental health benefits of physical activity provide ample reason why people should be physically active, but seldomly do these explain why people are physically active.
• Theories provide general frameworks or structures to describe, predict, or understand physical activity behavior or behavior change.
• This chapter showcases different types of theories and provides illustrative examples of how theories of each type have been applied to physical activity motivation science.

Table 2.1

Overview of the Categories of Theories and Examples of Specific Theories as Applied to Physical Activity Motivation

Theories of Physical Activity Motivation

Social Cognitive Theories

• The main premise of social cognitive theories is that behavior is driven by our goals or intentions, which are informed based on our values and expectations about that behavior.
• Social cognitive theories take on an agentic view, meaning that people are seen as the active decision-makers and main drivers guiding our own behavior.
• Due to the assumption that our behavior is the result of acting on deliberative reasoning, social cognitive theories are described as a reasoned action approach

Health Action Process Approach

• The health action process approach describes physical activity motivation as two separate processes with different cognitive, behavioral, and situational determinants
• The first phase is the motivation phase, which culminates in the formation of physical activity intentions.
• The second phase is the volition phase which leads to actually doing the intended physical activity.
• The health action process approach theorizes that we experience a shift in mindset when transitioning between motivation to volition phases.

Table 2.2

Health Action Process Approach Applied to Physical Activity

Temporal Self-Regulation Theory

• Temporal self-regulation theory is an evolution of social cognitive theories that present pre-intention and post-intention phases of motivation and accounts for potential factors that may influence whether we act on our intentions or not.
• Unique to temporal self-regulation theory is the premise that the impact of social, cognitive, and biological influences on behaviors depends on the perceived timing between the anticipated costs and benefits of engaging in the behavior.
• Temporal self-regulation theory proposes that physical activity behavior is predicted by intention strength, self-regulatory capacity, and behavioral prepotency.
• Additionally, this theory postulates that there is a feedback loop, such that behavior impacts the determinants of future behavior.

Table 2.3

Temporal Self-Regulation Theory Applied to Physical Activity

Humanistic Theories

• Humanistic theories emphasize self-actualization: the belief that people are innately driven towards personal growth and strive toward achievement of full potential.
• A humanistic perspective suggests that behavior is not driven separately by our values, expectancies, goals, and circumstances, but rather that these factors influence our learning about what is and is not fulfilling, and the main predictor of behavior is the internal drive towards self-fulfillment.
• In accordance with the humanistic perspective, learning is most effective through positive and negative lived experiences.

Self-Determination Theory

• Self-determination theory suggests that behavior is motivated by different types of motivation: autonomous and controlled motivation.
• Autonomous motivation for physical activity leads toward self-actualization either through enjoyment, achievement of goals, or consistency with how we want to be.
• Controlled motivation for physical activity is dependent on external pressures, such as a desire to gain external rewards or avoid externally imposed punishments.

Table 2.4

Self-Determination Theory Applied to Physical Activity

Dual-Process Theories

• Dual-Process theories propose that behavior is influenced by two types of processes: reflective processes, which are the deliberate, effortful processes that translate into reasoned action, and automatic processes, which are rapid, sometimes nonconscious, and not dependent on cognitive resources.
• Common to most dual-process models is the postulate of default-interventionist architecture: an expectation that people will, by default, be influenced by automatic processes, unless they have sufficient motivation, opportunity, and self-regulatory capacity to inhibit them.
• Also common to most dual-process theories is the notion that reflective processes are slower to engage and enact than automatic processes, because reflective processes involve effortful cognitions such as making intentions to engage in a behavior or not, and self-regulation such as planning and problem solving to enact intentions.

Theory of Hedonic Motivation

• The theory of hedonic motivation proposes that environmental cues trigger dual motivational processes that influence behavior: reflective motivation and hedonic motivation.
• Reflective motivation is influenced from the desire to engage in physical activity or not, based on expectations and values of physical activity.
• Hedonic motivation is influence from the immediate, uncontrollable feeling or “urge” of wanting to do physical activity or wanting to avoid physical activity.

Table 2.5

Theory of Hedonic Motivation Applied to Physical Activity

Influential Variables

Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity

• The theory of effort minimization in physical activity centers around the evolutionary perspective that people have evolved to have automatic attractions toward effort minimization

Table 2.6

Theory of Effort Minimization in Physical Activity

Maintenance Theories

• Maintenance theories differentiate between behavioral initiation factors and behavioral maintenance factors
• Behavioral initiation factors capture motivational influences needed to instigate changes in behavior.
• Behavioral maintenance factors are the motivational influences needed for long-term continuation of the behavior change.
• Maintenance theories of behavior change describe how at any point in time, we have multiple behavioral options, only one of which may be physical activity. Decisions about whether to do physical activity or not can occur on a daily or even momentary basis

Theoretical Explanations for Maintenance of Behavior Change

• It is theorized that we need at least a single maintenance motive, or reason, to maintain physical activity behavior. Typically, initial behavior change will occur when motivation is high and there is ample opportunity.
• As motivation wanes and priorities and opportunities change, self-regulation becomes more relevant for physical activity maintenance.
• The more often we engage in physical activity within the same context, the more likely it will form into a habit, which means the decision to continue to maintain physical activity will require less deliberation and self-regulation.
• Importantly, whether we maintain physical activity will also be dependent on the environmental and social context that surrounds you.

Figure 2.1

Conclusion

• Social cognitive theories propose that behavior is driven by intent and reasoning based on expectancies and values.
• Humanistic theories propose that humans are driven toward fulfillment, and motivation is heavily influenced by learning.
• Dual-process theories posit that there are both reasoned and automatic processes that influence behavior.
• Maintenance theories postulate that the reasons someone starts physical activity will likely not sustain their maintenance in physical activity over the long-term.

Learning Exercises

• Why are motivation theories important for physical activity and sport domains?
• Which two theories within this chapter posit that behavior motivation is derived from intentions and goals, expectations, and values about the behavior?
• Which theory presented in this chapter suggests that motivation is driven by external and internal regulations?
• What two types of processes are said to be involved in dual-process theories?
• What is the difference between behavior initiation and behavior maintenance?
• What does it mean if a behavior is described as having high behavioral potential?
• Our previous experiences with the behavior will influence the level of behavioral potential. What is this concept known as?

Glossary Terms

• Effort minimization: The process of acting in ways that require the least perceived amount of effort or energy expenditure.
• Intentions: Our perception of the probability that we will do the behavior
• intention direction: Represents the decision of whether or not to do physical activity (or how much, how often
• Intention strength: Defined as the intensity of the commitment to enact the behavior or not.
• Intention-behavior gap: A phenomenon describing the reality that goals and intentions often do not lead to behavior and behavior cannot be reliably predicted only by goals or intentions
• Action control: A term that encapsulates the factors that impact whether intentions translate into behavior or not
• Task self-efficacy: Our own perception of our capability to do physical activity
• Outcome expectancies: Perceptions of the likely outcomes of physical activity
• Action plans: Detailed plans describing when, where, and how intentions will be implemented and are expected to regulate the implementation of intentions.
• Coping plans: Plans set in place as alternatives to the initial action plans with specific anticipated barriers and plans to overcome them, such that potential implementation problems are foreseen and so the enactment of intentions is not derailed
• Coping self-efficacy: Our certainty that we can maintain the intended physical activity even when barriers are faced
• Recovery self-efficacy: Our belief about to what extent we can recover physical activity if we stop for a while
• Connectedness beliefs: Perceptions about the impact of behavior for later outcomes
• Temporal valuations: Perceptions of the value of behavioral outcomes
• Self-regulatory capacity: The ability to effortfully regulate behavior and accounts for both cognitive capacity and physiological energy.
• Behavioral prepotency: The impact of the frequency of past behavior and the presence of environmental cues to action.
• Ambient temporal contingencies: The balance between the perceived timing of the anticipated costs and benefits of engaging in the behavior
• Self-actualization: The belief that people are innately driven towards personal growth and strive toward achievement of full potential
• Autonomous motivation (for physical activity): Leads toward self-actualization either through enjoyment, achievement of goals, or consistency with how we want to be.
• Controlled motivation (for physical activity): Dependent on external pressures, such as a desire to gain external rewards or avoid externally imposed punishments.