2.1 Key Concepts and Definitions in Family Policy

Defining family and family policy has proven so difficult that it has been likened to “swimming in molasses or nailing Jell-O to a tree” (Blankenhorn, et al., 1990, p. 5). Settling on a definition of family is not a matter that can be settled by research or by court cases. Scholars have been unable to agree on how to define family policy, but they have agreed that progress in the field depends upon identifying what the parameters are—what family policy is, what it is not, and what it can achieve.

Definitions of Family

The first two definitions are considered structural definitions because they focus on who is in and out of the family based on characteristics such as place of residence, blood ties, or legal contracts (Bogenschneider, 2024). The third definition is a functional definition that focuses on the functions that families perform for their members (Bogenschneider, 2024).

Source: Bing Images–Family

• A group of two or more people or more (one of whom is the householder) related by birth, marriage, or adoption and residing together; all such people (including related subfamily members) are considered as members of one family (U.S. Census Bureau, 2023). This is a structural definition that excludes:

• • a child in a divorced family who spends half of the week with one parent and stepparent, and the other half with another parent and stepparent;
  • cohabitating couples;
  • a couple who are legally married, but maintain separate apartments and see each other on weekends;
  • foster families;
  • noncustodial parent or unmarried parent who does not reside with the child; and
  • same-sex partners, who are not related by birth, marriage, or adoption, but who nevertheless carry out many family-like functions over a significant period of time.
• Two or more persons related by birth, marriage, or adoption (Ooms & Preister, 1988). This structural definition would include some of the families excluded above, but still would not include cohabitating couples, foster families, and same-sex partners.
• Any unit in which there exists:
  • sharing of economic property.
  • a caring and supportive relationship.
  • a sense of commitment or identification with the other members, and
  • any children born to or raised by members.

This functional definition, which seems on the surface to be more inclusive, would exclude a noncustodial parent who fails to pay child support or a legally sanctioned marriage where the couple no longer cares for each other but stays together for economic reasons or for the sake of the child (Doherty & Baird, 1983). Even a biological parent who fails to provide care and support would probably not be considered a family member under this definition.

Trying to identify only one definition of family is like trying to cheat death: it does not work, and you end up feeling foolish for trying (Doherty & Baird, 1983). Rather than seeking a single universal definition, either a structural or functional definition can be written to reinforce the intent of a specific program or policy (Eshleman, 1991; Moen & Schorr, 1987). For example, if the issue was child support, a structural definition would require financial support only from those people related to the child by blood, marriage, or adoption. In contrast, functional definitions would require support from any committed caregiver. If the issue were care for the elderly, structural definitions would provide benefits only to those who have legal responsibility for the dependent, whereas functional definitions would include any close companion who provided care. When considered in the context of specific legislation, structural definitions seem more appropriate for some goals, and functional definitions for others.

The lack of a single preferred definition of family may seem opportunistic or even cowardly, yet precedence exists. No legal definition of family appears in the U.S. Constitution, the federal statutes or regulations (Ooms, 1998), or many state statutes (Bogenschneider et al., 1993). Definitions will vary over time, across jurisdictions, and in different political contexts.

Definitions of Policy

• Policy: The development, enactment, and implementation of a plan or course of action carried out through a law, rule, code, or mechanism in the public or private sector (Bogenschneider, 2014).
• Social Policy: Policies that deal with individuals or groups of people in society (Zimmerman, 1995).

What Is “Family Policy?”

• Public Policy
  • Social Policy
    • Family Policy
• Family policy is fundamentally concerned about the family as the basic social institution (Bogenschneider, 2024).

 Family Policy As:

• A perspective: for understanding and thinking about the actions of the government and the consequences of these actions for families (Zimmerman, 1995).
• A process: of collective decision-making (Zimmerman, 1995).
• A field of activity: the wide range of family-related programs that result from policymaking (e.g. family preservation, family and medical leave, income supports) (Zimmerman, 1995).

Family Policy

• Is a course of action directed at the family (including marriage and kinship) with the intent of guiding, influencing, and determining:
  • the structures it assumes,
  • the functions it performs,
  • the processes of change, and
  • the behavior of its members (Zimmerman, 1995).

Dimensions of Family Policy

• Explicit: those policies in which the consequences for families are deliberately structured.
• Implicit: those that have non-familial objectives, but which nonetheless affect families.

Explicit Family Policy Is Directed at:

• Family Composition: childbirth, marriage, divorce, adoption, foster care.
• Economic Support: families’ abilities to provide for their dependents’ basic needs (food, shelter, health and clothing).
• Development of Children: parents’ ability to nurture, rear, and educate children.
• Family Care: families’ ability to care for members and relatives who are chronically ill, frail, or have disabilities.
• Partner Relationships: Families’ ability to foster and maintain committed, stable partner relationships.

 Policymaking Arenas

• Level of government
  • federal
  • state
  • local (county, city, school board)
• Branch of government
  • legislative
  • executive
  • judicial

Dimensions of Family Policy

• Policy to maintain the status quo or as a force of change?
• Policies for family groups and systems for individuals?
• Policies that see the family (children) as a public or private institution?
• Policies that are targeted or universal?
• Policies at the macro-level (economic support, housing, etc.) or micro-level (caregiving, nurturing)?
• Policies that promote treatment strategies or preventive ones?
• Policy at the federal, state, and/or local level?

There were quite a few definitions in this section, if you would like to review your understanding, feel free to complete the activity below.

2.2. Key Theories Underpinning Family Policy

Family policy, a crucial area of public policy, addresses the needs and challenges of families at various levels of society. It encompasses a wide range of issues, including child welfare, parental leave, family support services, and education. The development and implementation of effective family policy rely on various theoretical frameworks that provide insights into the dynamics of family life, the role of government and society in supporting families, and the impacts of policy on family well-being. Here, we explore key theories that underpin family policy.

• Social Constructivism Theory — This theory examines how societal norms and values shape the understanding and treatment of family and family issues within public policy. It suggests that what is considered “normal” or “desirable” in family life is constructed through social interactions and cultural norms (Berger & Luckmann, 1966). This perspective is critical in family policy development, as it highlights how policies can reinforce or challenge existing social norms and practices related to family structures, roles, and responsibilities.
• Systems Theory — Systems theory views the family as a system, a whole consisting of interrelated parts that function together (Wilkinson, 2011). In the context of family policy, this theory emphasizes the interconnectedness of family members and the complex dynamics within families (Wilkinson, 2011). It suggests that policies should consider the family as a unit, recognizing that interventions affecting one member can have ripple effects throughout the family system.
• Ecological Systems Theory — Developed by Urie Bronfenbrenner, this theory places individuals and families within a series of nested environmental systems, from the immediate microsystem (e.g., family, school) to the broader macrosystem (e.g., cultural values, economic conditions) (Darling, 2007). It underscores the importance of considering the multiple environments that interact to influence family life (Darling, 2007). Family policies informed by ecological systems theory aim to address the diverse contexts that affect families, ensuring that interventions are relevant and supportive across different levels of society (Darling, 2007).
• Life Course Perspective — The life course perspective focuses on the developmental processes and transitions individuals and families undergo over time (Heinz & Marshall, 2003). It emphasizes the importance of timing, historical context, and social pathways in understanding family behaviors and needs (Heinz & Marshall, 2003). Family policies utilizing this perspective consider the changing nature of family roles and relationships across the lifespan, aiming to provide timely and appropriate support during key transitions (e.g., childbirth, retirement).
• Feminist Theory — Feminist theory in family policy highlights the gender dynamics within families and society. It critically examines how policies affect men and women differently, particularly in terms of work-life balance, caregiving responsibilities, and access to resources (Beasley, 1999). Feminist theory advocates for policies that promote gender equality and challenge traditional gender roles within families (Beasley, 1999).
• Social Justice Theory — Social justice theory focuses on the equitable distribution of resources, opportunities, and rights among all members of society, including families (Jost & Kay, 2010). It calls for family policies that address inequalities and ensure that all families, regardless of their socioeconomic status, race, ethnicity, or composition, have access to the support and resources they need to thrive (Jost & Kay, 2010).

These theories provide a foundation for understanding the complex factors that influence family life and the development of policies that can effectively address the needs of families. By integrating insights from these diverse theoretical perspectives, policymakers can create more informed, comprehensive, and effective family policies.

Case Study Analysis:

Read the following scenario and apply the theoretical frameworks to analyze the situation and propose policy recommendations:

Scenario: The government is considering a new policy to provide extended parental leave to support working families. The policy aims to address challenges such as work-life balance, child development, and gender equality in the workplace.

Analysis Questions:

• How would each theoretical framework discussed in this section interpret the need for extended parental leave?
• What specific recommendations might each theory offer for designing and implementing this policy?
• Discuss potential benefits and challenges of the proposed policy from the perspective of each theoretical framework.

2.3 Current Challenges and Issues in Family Policies

The current challenges and issues in family policy primarily revolve around adapting to significant changes in work and family life, addressing outdated policy frameworks, and balancing ideological approaches to policymaking. Key aspects include (McCloskey, 2022):

• Evolving Caregiving Needs: Increases in single-parent households and women’s labor force participation have heightened the need for child-care services outside the home.
• Outdated Policies: Existing policies like the Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit and the Family and Medical Leave Act have not kept pace with these changes, offering limited relief to families, particularly low-income ones.
• Policy Ideological Differences: Different political ideologies have led to varied approaches to family policy, such as the debate over universality versus targeted support in policies like universal preschool and paid leave.
• Financial Constraints and Economic Pressures: Balancing the cost of expansive programs against fiscal responsibility and the implications for economic growth and tax burdens.
• Parental Choice and Diversity of Providers: Ensuring that policies accommodate diverse family needs and preferences, especially in terms of child-care arrangements and educational options.
• Broadening Family Support: Efforts to enhance support for families, such as proposals to increase the Child Tax Credit and address child poverty, while considering the implications for employment and long-term financial independence.
• Workplace Flexibility and Family Responsibilities: Addressing the balance between workplace demands and family responsibilities, with an emphasis on increasing workplace flexibility and accommodating parents.

These challenges reflect the complex nature of family policy, which must navigate changing social dynamics, economic pressures, and diverse needs of families in contemporary society.

2.4 Multilevel Perspectives on Family Policy

Family policies at various levels have been shaped by a multitude of factors, ranging from economic challenges to specific state-driven initiatives. Here’s an overview of these policies at the local, state, national, and international levels:

Local and State Levels:

• General Trends: In 2023, many states in the U.S. made significant progress in addressing issues like poverty, the childcare crisis, and birth outcomes. There’s a substantial variation across states in how these issues were addressed​​ (Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center, 2023).
• Specific Examples:
  • North Carolina: Expanded Medicaid, increased Medicaid reimbursements for prenatal care, and passed a law to raise childcare subsidy reimbursement rates for high-quality providers​​ (Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center, 2023).
  • Minnesota: Created a 12-week paid family leave program, invested heavily in programs for infants and toddlers, increased childcare subsidy reimbursement, and expanded Medicaid reimbursement for doulas (Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center, 2023)​​.
  • Vermont: Made historic investments in child and family support, including extending earned income tax credit (EITC) and federal child tax credit (CTC) eligibility and extending pregnancy Medicaid coverage (Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center, 2023)​​.

National Level (United States)

• American Families Plan: This plan aims to ensure that low- and middle-income families spend no more than 7% of their income on childcare. It also intends to make the Child and Dependent Care Tax Credit permanent, providing up to $4,000 for childcare expenses (The White House, 2021)​​​​.
• Support for Kinship Caregivers: Regulations have been released to support kinship caregivers, encouraging them to become licensed or approved foster caregivers, benefiting both the child and the relatives providing foster care​​ (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 2023).

International Trends

• Interconnected Crises: A UNICEF report titled “Prospects for Children in 2023: A Global Outlook” highlights the impact of various global crises on children, including the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, inflation, and food and energy crises (United Nations, 2023).
• Health and Pandemic Response: The COVID-19 pandemic has spurred progress in vaccine development and global health system reforms. Continuous efforts are needed to strengthen global health security, especially for children (United Nations, 2023)​​.
• Economic Impacts: Global inflation and economic austerity measures have had a significant impact on child poverty and family well-being. Government action to expand and protect social benefits is crucial in mitigating these impacts (United Nations, 2023)​​.
• Food and Nutrition Security: Rising food insecurity due to extreme weather events and conflicts, such as the war in Ukraine, has made it harder for families worldwide to feed their children​​ (United Nations, 2023).
• Energy Crises and Sustainability: Rising energy prices have increased the cost of living, leading to a focus on transitioning to clean and sustainable energy sources, which could create new jobs for young people​​ (United Nations, 2023).
• Climate Finance and Debt Relief: Developing countries face challenges in recovering from the pandemic and addressing the climate crisis. Without sufficient financial support, the urgent needs of children in these countries may remain unmet​​ (United Nations, 2023).
• Political Instability and Social Movements: Political instability poses a threat to democracy and can impact children negatively. However, young people are increasingly participating in social movements, advocating for climate action, mental health, education, and gender equality (United Nations, 2023)​​.
• International Cooperation and Children’s Welfare: Increasing factionalism makes international cooperation more challenging. Prioritizing the well-being of children in multilateral efforts is essential to address their increasing needs (United Nations, 2023)​​.

These policies and trends reflect the diverse and complex challenges faced by families and children in 2023, and the varied approaches taken by different governments and organizations to address these challenges.

Activity: Visualizing Family Policy: History, Challenges, and Global Perspectives

1. Select a Topic: Choose a specific aspect of family policy to focus on. This could be parental leave, child welfare, family financial support, or any other relevant topic.
2. Research Phase:
   1. Historical Development: Investigate the history of your chosen policy aspect. How has it evolved over time in different parts of the world?
   2. Key Challenges: Identify and research the main challenges faced in implementing and maintaining this policy.
   3. Comparative Analysis: Select at least two countries for a comparative study. Look at how these countries have approached the policy differently and the outcomes of these approaches.
3. Data Collection: Gather statistical data, historical timelines, policy descriptions, and expert opinions to support your infographic.
4. Designing the Infographic:
   1. Use an infographic tool (like Canva, Piktochart, or Adobe Spark).
   2. Include a clear title and introduction.
   3. Create a timeline or map to show historical development and geographical differences.
   4. Use graphs or charts for statistical data.
   5. Incorporate icons and images to enhance visual appeal and comprehension.
   6. Ensure the information is organized logically and is easy to follow.
5. Content Suggestions:
   1. Brief history of the policy aspect.
   2. Key policy milestones and turning points.
   3. Comparative analysis chart or map.
   4. Major challenges and potential solutions.
   5. Quotes from experts or policymakers.
   6. Future trends or predictions based on current data.
6. Citation: Include a section for references and data sources.
7. Presentation: Prepare to present your infographic to the class, highlighting your key findings and design choices.

Evaluation Criteria:

• Content Accuracy: How well-researched and accurate is the information presented?
• Visual Appeal and Clarity: Is the infographic visually engaging and easy to understand?
• Creativity: Use of creative elements to enhance understanding.
• Comparative Analysis Depth: Quality of the comparative analysis between different countries.
• Presentation Skills: Effectiveness in presenting and explaining the infographic.

Outcome: This activity will help students begin the research process to effectively examine the family issue they choose to pursue in the development of their policy brief.

References

Beasley, C. (1999). What is feminism? An introduction to feminist theory. Sage Publications.

Berger, P. L., & Luckmann, T. (1966). The social construction of reality: A treatise in the sociology of knowledge. Anchor Books.

Blankenhorn, D., Bayme, S. & Elshtain, J. B. (Eds.) (1990). Rebuilding the next: A new commitment to the American family. Family Service America.

Bogenschneider, K., Kaplan, T., & Morgan, K. (Eds.). (1993). Single parenthood and children’s well-being (Wisconsin Family Impact Seminar Briefing Report No. 2). http://www.familyimpactseminars.org/doc.asp?d=s_wifis02report.pdf

Bogenschneider, K. (2024). Family policy matters: How policymaking affects families and what professionals can do. (4th Ed). New York, NY: Routledge.

Darling, N. (2007). Ecological systems theory: The person in the center of the circles. Research in Human Development, 4(3-4), 203-217. https://doi.org/10.1080/15427600701663023

Doherty, W. J., & Baird, M.A. (1983). Family therapy and family medicine: Toward the primary care of families. Guilford Press.

Eshleman, J. R. (1991). The family: An introduction (Edition 6). Allyn and Bacon.

Heinz, W. R., & Marshall, V. W. (2003). Social dynamics of the life course: Transitions, institutions, and interrelations. Walter de Gruyter, Inc.

Jost, J. T., & Kay, A. C. (2010). Social justice: History, theory, and research. In Fiske, S. T., Gilbert, D. T., & Lindzey, G. (Eds.), Handbook of Social Psychology (5th ed., pp. 1122-1165). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1002/9780470561119.socpsy002030

McCloskey, A. M. (2022). The future of family policy. National Affairs, 57. https://www.nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/the-future-of-family-policy

Moen, P., & Schorr, A. L. (1987). Families and social policy. In: Sussman, M. B., Steinmetz, S. K. (Eds.), Handbook of marriage and the family (pp. 795-813). Plenum.

Ooms, T. (1998). Towards more perfect unions: Putting marriage on the public agenda. Family Impact Seminar.

Ooms, T., & Preister, S. (1988). A strategy for strengthening families: Using family criteria in policymaking and program evaluation. Family Impact Seminar.

Prenatal-to-3 Policy Impact Center. (2023). 2023 roadmap release: State policies cause dramatic variation in child wellbeing and family resilience. https://pn3policy.org/roadmap-release/

The White House. (2021). Fact sheet: The American families plan. https://www.whitehouse.gov/briefing-room/statements-releases/2021/04/28/fact-sheet-the-american-families-plan/#:~:text=The%20American%20Families%20Plan%20will,child%20care%2C%20and%20that%20the

United Nations. (2023). Eight trends that will impact children in 2023. https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/01/1132937

U.S. Census Bureau. (2023). Surveys & programs: Subject definitions. https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/cps/technical-documentation/subject-definitions.html#family

U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. (2023). HHS announces historic child welfare package to expand support and equity in child welfare system. Administration for Children & Families. https://www.acf.hhs.gov/media/press/2023/hhs-announces-historic-child-welfare-package-expand-support-and-equity-child

Wilkinson, L. A. (2011). Systems theory. In: Goldstein, S., Naglieri, J. A. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of Child Behavior and Development. Springer. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-79061-9_941

Zimmerman, S. L. (1995). Understanding family policy: Theories & applications. Sage Publications, Ins. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781452243658