Critical Writing

What is “critical writing”? It is learning how to present all sides of an effective argument (Ahmed, 2018). This means learning how to present the reasoning and evidence in a clear, well-structured manner. The aim of critical writing is not to present the “right answer,” but to discuss the arguments intelligently (Ahmed, 2018). Example activities of critical writing include:

1) engaging with the evidence;

2) open-minded and objective inquiry;

3) presenting reasons to dispute a particular finding;

4) providing an alternative approach;

5) recognizing the limitations of evidence; either your evidence or the evidence provided by others;

6) thinking around a specific problem; and

7) applying caution and humility when challenging established positions.

Critical writers show their interpretation of the evidence and source material, how they have used that information to demonstrate their understanding and their subsequent position on the topic. Critical writing is involved in academic debates and researching what is happening in a subject area (Ahmed, 2018). The way critical writers select their sources, the way they show how they agree or disagree with other pieces of evidence and the way they structure an argument will all show their thought process and how they have understood the information they have read.

Critical writers keep their readers in mind and try to anticipate the questions they would ask. They can use evidence to help them strengthen their position, answer readers’ questions, and counteract opposing points of view.

Critical Speaking

What is “critical speaking”? It is communicating an argument effectively by integrating fully into the critical-thinking process (Wagner, 2019). When critical speakers address, theorize, examine, explain, and review their work, then they are thinking critically. Learning to speak critically helps individuals address internal assumptions and the research process. Like the information provided in the Critical Reading and Critical Writing sections of this chapter, critical speakers need to ask the following questions when they put an argument together (Wagner, 2019):

• Purpose – What is the purpose/goal/intent/outcome you are trying to accomplish in your speech? What do you want the audience to know, think, feel, or do when you are done with the speech?
• Question – What question are you addressing? What are the needs of your listeners?
• Information – What information are you providing to support your goal and purpose? What experience do you bring to the topic, method, and goal?
• Concepts – What are the concepts you want your listeners to understand? Are they clear? Are they relevant? Do they make sense?
• Assumptions – What assumptions have you made about your listeners, their knowledge level, their interest, and their needs? Are your assumptions valid? Are you taking your listeners for granted? How can you answer the listeners’ questions or assumptions?
• Inferences – Have you reasoned out all aspects and lines of thinking in presenting your evidence? What is your support for the inferences and suggestions you are making in your speech? Have you evaluated the sources you will use for support?
• Points of View – Do you acknowledge, allow, and respect other points of view from your listeners? In the speech-building stages, do you incorporate these opposing views? How do you respond to other points of view?
• Implications – Do I understand the ramifications and results of the position and goal you are presenting in your speech? How can you incorporate the pieces of information as you progress as a speechwriter and presenter for critical thinking for public speaking?

Critical Self-Reflection

What is “critical self-reflection”? It refers to the process of identifying, questioning, and assessing our deeply held assumptions, beliefs, and perceptions that have led to personal growth and how we might think or act differently in the future as a result (Bart, 2011; Jacoby, 2010). The goal of critical self-reflection is to change your thinking about a subject and thus change your behavior. It is a vehicle for critical analysis, problem-solving, synthesis of opposing ideas, evaluation, identifying patterns, and creating meaning (Rehm, 1999).

Critical self-reflection is a form of personal and professional learning and development that involves thinking about practices and procedures with intent and honesty. It needs to be embedded in daily practice and can be a challenging skill requiring the ability to question and change deep-seated assumptions and practices (Bart, 2011; Jacoby, 2010). Critical reflection begins by engaging with our thoughts, feelings, and experiences on what is occurring within a particular environment (e.g., home setting, work setting, etc.) and thoroughly analyzing the assumptions that reinforce our perceptions.

The next step is to accept different viewpoints to learn and evaluate how we may change our approach or perspective on an issue or problem. This can lead to new conclusions and possible solutions with new ideas to inform future planning and actions. The idea is that we not only explore our reaction to an issue or problem but we are also examining that issue or problem from alternative viewpoints, such as through the eyes of a colleague or by reviewing relevant literature and theories and considering if a change is required in our approach or perspective.

Critical self-reflection involves:

• Reflecting on our own biases;
• Examining and rethinking our perspectives;
• Questioning whether our perspectives take a broad view;
• Considering all aspects of an issue or problem;
• Engaging in thought-provoking conversations with colleagues, families, professionals, and community members; and
• Using reflective questions in the critical science perspective to prompt our thinking.

When working with learners, as an example, educators are compelled to constantly reflect on their practice and how it influences learners’ worldviews. In turn, Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) educators should develop reflection assignments and discussions requiring learners to examine their attitudes and practices (Rehm, 1999). This reflective thinking by learners will further help them see any issues within themselves that interfere with their independence and ability to make reasoned decisions.

Critical self-reflection is important because it ensures the best possible outcomes occur with the individuals we work with and live with daily. The benefits of engaging in critical self-reflection include (Bart 2011; Jacoby, 2010):

• Strengthening our personal and professional practice;
• Generating learning;
• Engaging higher-order thinking and creative practice;
• Helping individuals make sense of experience;
• A vehicle for problem-solving;
• Allowing the development of deeper understandings; and
• Building valuable insights to inform decision-making and manage issues more effectively.

Critical self-reflection provides a framework to think differently about working through various issues or problems and helps us make purposeful changes to our practice for improving personal and professional outcomes.

Perennial Problems

Perennial is defined as situations or states that keep occurring or that seem to exist all the time; used specifically to describe perennial problems such as unemployment being a perennial cause of poverty (Brown and Paolucci, 1979). Perennial problems are concerned with asking value questions about “how-to” and “what should be” regarding significant issues in everyday life (Brown & Paolucci, 1979).

Browne and Keeley (2018) explain “how-to” problems as descriptive problems “that raise questions about the accuracy of descriptions of the past, present, and future” (p. 17). Example descriptive questions include the following:

• Does financial education improve a person’s ability to budget their money?
• What ought to be done about the $1.7 trillion learner loan debt crisis?
• Is cognitive behavioral therapy the most effective way to treat depression?

They require answers attempting to describe the way the world was, is, or is going to be. The answers to these types of problems are commonly found in textbooks, magazines, the Internet, and television. “How-to” problems are technical problems that include a step-by-step process toward one solution. Other examples of “how-to” problems include completing a job application to achieve the goal of receiving an interview; or how to follow directions on a recipe to achieve the goal of producing an edible product; or how to sew in achieving the goal of producing a clothing item (Montgomery, 1999). The “how-to” problem is solved when specific steps are followed to achieve the goal or complete the product.

Browne and Keeley (2018) also explain “what should be” problems as prescriptive problems “that raise questions about what should be done or what is right or wrong, or good or bad” (p. 18). Example prescriptive questions include the following:

• Should food insecurity be taught in public schools?
• What should be done to reduce child obesity?
• Must we outlaw specific apps used in social media to reduce the increasing rates of eating disorders among adolescents?

They require answers that address the search for achieving particular conditions within society such as equality, freedom, or security. Because these questions search for specific conditions, they are considered perennial problems, which need to be continually reevaluated (Montgomery, 1999). Perennial (what should be) problems are value-related problems that do not come with a prescribed (how-to) solution. The solution may require choices between competing goals and values (Montgomery, 1999). For example, loyalty and honesty are competing values that shape an individual’s conclusion to a problem concerning a particular controversy, such as “Should you tell your parents about your sister’s drug habit?” The solution may include multiple perspectives, conditions, or contextual aspects related to the problem. An understanding of what currently exists related to the problem is needed to develop solutions, as well as the historical, political, economic, cultural, and gender-related aspects, to name a few (Montgomery, 1999).

One of the strategies that can be used to examine perennial or emerging problems is conducting a gap analysis. A gap analysis is an examination and assessment of a recurring concern to identify the differences between “what is” (what currently exists regarding the problem) and “what should be” (that which is more desirable) and how to close the gap between the two (Brown, 1980). There are three steps needed when conducting a gap analysis:

1. Identify the main perennial or emerging problem – this initial step is to understand where we want to apply a gap analysis, and what we seek to get out of it;
2. List the symptoms of the problem by breaking down the problem into specific, observable symptoms or sub-issues through research. A symptom of a problem is something you can see or feel that shows there is a bigger issue. It is a sign or effect caused by the main problem. Symptoms help us understand how the problem affects individuals, families, and communities; and
3. For each symptom, create a set of questions that will help explore and understand the underlying causes and contributing factors.

With these three steps in mind, you can effectively analyze and address other perennial problems in a similar manner. An example is provided below:

Perennial Problem: What should be done to ensure all families can afford childcare?

Symptoms of the Problem Through Research:

1. High costs for families
2. Limited availability of childcare centers
3. Low wages for childcare workers
4. Impact on workforce participation
5. Variable quality of care

Questions for Each Level of the Gap Analysis:

High Costs for Families:

• What are the average costs of childcare in different regions?
• How do childcare costs compare to average family incomes?
• What percentage of family income is typically spent on childcare?
• Are there any existing subsidies or financial assistance programs for childcare?

Limited Availability of Childcare Centers:

• What is the current supply of childcare centers in various regions?
• What are the waitlist times for enrollment in childcare centers?
• Are there any geographical areas with a higher concentration of childcare centers?
• What are the regulatory barriers to opening new childcare centers?

Low Wages for Childcare Workers:

• What are the average wages for childcare workers?
• How do these wages compare to the cost of living in different areas?
• What are the qualifications and training requirements for childcare workers?
• How does low pay affect worker turnover and the quality of care provided?

Impact on Workforce Participation:

• How does the cost of childcare affect parents’ decisions to enter or remain in the workforce?
• Are there particular demographics more affected by childcare costs (e.g., single parents, low-income families)?
• What policies or programs are in place to support working parents with childcare needs?
• How does the lack of affordable childcare impact employers and overall economic productivity?

Variable Quality of Care:

• What standards and regulations are in place to ensure the quality of childcare?
• How is the quality of childcare measured and monitored?
• What are the differences in quality between various types of childcare providers (e.g., home-based vs. center-based)?
• How do parental perceptions of childcare quality influence their choices and satisfaction?

After completing this type of gap analysis, the results should be a detailed understanding of the main problem and its various symptoms. This understanding helps in several key ways:

1. Identification of Key Issues: Clearly identifying the main problem and its symptoms gives a comprehensive view of what needs to be addressed.
2. Prioritization: Understanding the different symptoms helps in prioritizing which issues need immediate attention and which can be addressed later.
3. Root Cause Analysis: The questions asked for each symptom guide the analysis to uncover the underlying causes of the problem.
4. Actionable Insights: The analysis provides actionable insights and information that can be used to develop targeted solutions and interventions.
5. Informed Decision-Making: With a clear picture of the problem and its effects, stakeholders can make informed decisions about where to allocate resources and efforts.

By the end of this gap analysis, there should be a clear path forward with specific steps to address the main problem and its symptoms, leading to more effective and targeted interventions.

Conducting this type of gap analysis on perennial problems offers several benefits:

1. Enhanced Understanding of the Problem
   • Comprehensive Insight: By breaking down the main problem into its symptoms, you gain a detailed understanding of the various aspects and dimensions of the issue.
   • Root Cause Identification: Helps identify the underlying causes of the problem, not just the visible symptoms.
2. Informed Decision-Making
   • Data-Driven Decisions: Provides a solid foundation of data and insights, enabling stakeholders to make informed and strategic decisions.
   • Prioritization: Helps prioritize issues based on their impact, allowing for more efficient allocation of resources.
3. Targeted Solutions
   • Actionable Steps: Identifies specific areas that need intervention, leading to the development of targeted solutions and action plans.
   • Focused Efforts: Ensures that efforts are directed towards the most pressing issues, increasing the chances of successful outcomes.
4. Resource Optimization
   • Efficient Use of Resources: Helps allocate resources more effectively by focusing on areas that will have the most significant impact.
   • Cost Savings: Reduces waste by avoiding unnecessary actions and focusing on critical areas.
5. Improved Stakeholder Engagement
   • Clear Communication: Provides a clear and structured way to communicate the problem and its impacts to stakeholders.
   • Collaboration: Facilitates collaboration among different stakeholders by highlighting areas where joint efforts are needed.
6. Proactive Problem-Solving
   • Prevention of Escalation: By addressing symptoms early, prevents the problem from escalating and causing more significant issues.
   • Continuous Improvement: Encourages ongoing monitoring and evaluation, leading to continuous improvement and adaptation of strategies.
7. Better Policy and Program Development
   • Evidence-Based Policies: Supports the creation of policies and programs based on thorough analysis and evidence.
   • Tailored Programs: Enables the development of programs that are specifically tailored to address the identified needs and gaps.

Example: Benefits in the Context of Affordable Childcare

• Understanding High Costs: Identifies why childcare is expensive and explores potential financial assistance options.
• Addressing Availability: Highlights regions with a shortage of childcare centers, guiding efforts to increase availability.
• Improving Wages: Recognizes the need for better wages for childcare workers to reduce turnover and improve care quality.
• Supporting Workforce Participation: Identifies the impact of childcare costs on parents’ ability to work, informing policies to support working families.
• Ensuring Quality: Focuses on improving the quality of care across different providers through better standards and monitoring.

Conducting this type of gap analysis is a powerful tool for systematically understanding and addressing complex problems, leading to more effective and sustainable solutions.

Practical Reasoning

Perennial or emerging problems are solved by engaging in the practical reasoning process. This process includes identifying and clarifying the context of the problem, examining valued ends, considering alternative means, comparing consequences, and taking action to promote positive qualities and actions (Brown & Paolucci, 1979).

The first step of this process is to identify and clarify the perennial or emerging problem. This includes asking individuals and families what existing gaps or needs are noticeable in their environment that can be used to challenge their assumptions (Klemme & Rommel, 2003). Once a perennial or emerging problem is identified, the question of “what should be done” is asked to help individuals and families focus on the research related to the problem.

The second step is to apply our critical literacy skills to examine meanings, values, valued ends, and other information related to the perennial or emerging problem. Valued ends are “the desirable state of affairs that individuals and families can achieve by examining existing conditions, reflecting on alternative options and choices, and acting to improve their lives” (Rehm, 2021, p. 187). Examples of valued ends include the well-being of individuals and families; democratic ideals; healthy nutrition; clean and sanitary conditions; a safe environment; and fairness and equity, to name a few (Laster, 2008). This is where we can begin comparing the existing conditions of “what is” with the ideal conditions of “what should be.” Three action concepts describe possible means for achieving valued ends. Individuals making decisions usually need three strategies for action (Laster, 2008):

• Technical action gets things done in the home, family, and community where private or public caregiving is necessary for quality of life. For example, planning, preparing, and serving food; selecting and caring for living environments and clothes; and maintaining safe, clean, and sanitary conditions (pp. 4-5).
• Communicative/Interpretive action calls for interpreting communications from diverse individuals in our complex world and relating to others in caring, supportive ways. For example, clarifying values, educating, advocating, dialoguing, and collaboratively solving problems (pp. 4-5).
• Reflective/Emancipatory action changes situations that interfere with healthy development, productivity, and autonomy with responsibility. For example, critiquing present social conditions, and forming individual and social goals and means for accomplishing change; collaboratively creating rules and laws, policies, and practices; and changing personal or family practices to meet the needs of family members or to promote the common good of others in society (pp. 4-5).

The third step is to evaluate the personal context of the perennial or emerging problem (Rehm, 2021). This is so we can become more critically conscious of our internal factors to make necessary changes, utilize our strengths, and work to become more empowered (Rehm, 2021). Individual barriers could include vague assumptions, personal biases, doubts, fears, weaknesses, or gaps in knowledge and skills (Rehm, 2021). Individual strengths could include skills, interests, guiding values, persistence, special knowledge, and life experiences (Rehm, 2021). We should be asking questions like: “Where am I in terms of reaching the valued end? What does it mean for me? What are my taken for granted assumptions? What am I doing that is getting in the way of reaching the valued end?” (Rehm, 2021, p. 191). This step engages critical self-reflection.

The fourth step “focuses on guiding individuals and families in analysis and critique of social trends, cultural influences, economics, political systems, and other external factors that affect their families” (Rehm, 2021, p. 191). This is where individuals and families can see how society affects them and what they can do to have an impact on society (Rehm, 2018). As we begin to understand others based on their perspectives, as well as research, we can start to compare possible alternatives and outcomes.

The fifth step is to analyze alternative ways to achieve the valued ends and the possible consequences of each alternative (Rehm, 2021). “Consequences concepts describe the results of holding a particular valued-end, or of actions proposed and taken. Individuals examine both primary and secondary consequences—how they are affected and how others will be affected now and in the future” (Laster, 2008, p. 5):

• Consequences of technical actions for self and others, such as effects of a low protein diet on the brain development of the fetus during the third trimester of pregnancy, and ultimately on the parents and society; effects of television on the development of children, and ultimately on cultural norms (Laster, 2008, p. 5).
• Consequences of communicative actions for self and others, such as probable effects of quitting a job without giving employer notice; effects of clarifying values; effects of education; effects of collaboratively addressing problems versus individually addressing problems (Laster, 2008, p. 5).
• Consequences of reflective emancipatory actions on self and others, such as probable effects of raising the consciousness of cultural norms regarding domestic abuse; effects of laws on reducing child abuse; effects of uncovering the root causes of alcoholism, codependency, and confronting alcoholism among peers and families; effects of dominating and supportive relationships on the quality of life and development of young children; and effects of well-developed reasoning versus inadequate reasoning on relationships and quality of life (Laster, 2008, p. 5).

We would begin asking questions such as “What is one alternative to change the situation, with what means, and with what consequences?” “What is the second alternative, with what means, and with what consequences?” (Rehm, 2021, p. 192). As the example table previously showed on the rising household debt within families, one alternative might be to require families with significant household debt to seek consumer credit counseling to better understand why and how they must live within their financial means. Various means could be meeting with a consumer credit counselor within a community agency, church, or online. A positive consequence would be families that participate will implement evidence-based budgeting and saving strategies to reduce their household debt and increase their emergency savings within a specified time frame. However, this would only help families who meet with a consumer credit counselor and follow his/her strategies for reducing their household debt.

The last step is to “create a plan of action, take action, and evaluate the action” (Rehm, 2021, p. 192). The goal would be to empower the individual and family to work together to create a valued end. Once the action plan is implemented, you would need to evaluate the effects on families: Have families reduced their household debt within the specified time frame as a result of meeting with the consumer credit counselor? Have families seen an increase in their quality of life as a result of reducing their household debt?

In summary, the practical reasoning process is the ability of people, either individually or collectively, to ethically reason about a course of action needed on a practical perennial or emerging problem (Laster and Johnson, 1998). Ethical thinking is also needed because practical reasoning involves both judgments of fact and judgments of value (Olson, 1999). Below is a Practical Reasoning Process Think Sheet strategy to help outline each of the steps individuals and families can use to develop specific critical literacy habits.

PRACTICAL REASONING: Deciding What’s Best To Do . . .

QUESTION . . . TEST!  WHICH CHOICE IS BEST?