20 Teaching Black/African American Students

Introduction

The common phrase of “the minority will become the majority” is truly coming into existence. The U.S. Census of 2010 reflected how these changes are occurring among the Black/African American community. Currently, Black/African American individuals make up 14% of the total population in the United States, which is approximately 42 million people. Black/African American individuals are heavily concentrated in the South and are more likely to establish residence in metropolitan areas. Although many individuals identified themselves as one race, there were significant increases in individuals who acknowledged themselves as Black/African American and another race during the last Census (Rastogi, Johnson, Hoeffel, & Drewery, 2011).

These statistics suggest that Family and Consumer Sciences (FCS) professionals will have to make a conscience effort to ensure that instructional strategies used are not only culturally sensitive, but also relevant and meaningful to the diverse students that they teach. The information that is presented in this chapter should not be viewed as strategies that should only be used for Black/African American students, but rather they should be considered when working with all students.

Key Terms

Code-Switching

Colorism

Culturally Competent

Culturally Responsive

Desegregation

Educational Attainment

Integration

Oppression

Racial Tracking

Segregation

What Does it Mean to be Black/African American in the United States? 

If you were to ask this question to random individuals, you would receive a variety of responses. This question can further be broken down into two separate segments as it relates to being a Black/ African American male or being a Black/African American female. Again, you would receive a variety of responses. Before working with Black/African American students,, it is helpful to make a genuine effort to understand their culture, lifestyle, values, and worth from a scholarly perspective as opposed to what may be misrepresented in the media.

Blacks or African Americans are defined as individuals who have origins in any of the Black racial groups of Africa (Aud et al., 2013). This includes individuals who identify themselves from SubSaharan African regions such as Kenya and Nigeria and Afro-Caribbean classifications such as Haitian and Jamaican (Rastogi et al., 2013). This concept is important for FCS professionals to recognize as all Black/African Americans should not be grouped into the same category. In other words, a student who is from Jamaica OR has lived in the United States but is being raised by Jamaican born parents/guardians may choose to identify themselves as Jamaican as opposed to Black/African American. Even though the terms Black and African American are often used interchangeably, it is important that educators not ignore the differences between groups as each group brings their own culture, history, and way of experiencing the American school system (Ford, 2012). To further emphasize this concept, Edwin Reyes in Soledad O’Brien’s 2012 Documentary “Who is Black in America”, makes the following quote:

“ I am Dominican.  I’m a dark-skinned Dominican. But when somebody asks me if I’m Black, I’m automatically thinking that they’re asking me if I’m African American…which I’m not. I think it’s two totally different cultures. They come from the same ancestry as you know, Africa obviously, but it was like…400 years removed. So at what point are we going to say American and Dominican? How I look on the outside doesn’t necessarily mean that I’m the same culturally as someone who is the same complexion as me.”

When working with students, FCS professionals should inquire about and understand the various cultural distinctions of their students to make personal connections and to have a better sense of their self-identity. The Black Youth Project (2016), created by the University of Chicago, completed a study that highlighted the thoughts of Blacks/ African Americans between the ages of 15 and 25. Participants of this study were able to voice their opinions on the following topics as they related to being Black/African American in the United States: gender roles and discrimination, the government, health, politics, racial attitudes, rap music and videos, human sexuality, and social issues and policies. Although not inclusive of all Black/African American youth in the United States, the results do offer a snapshot to the actual feelings of these individuals.

• 14% of youth believed that they grew up in a very good neighborhood.
• 54% reported that they felt that Black/African American youth receive a poorer education on average than White youth.
• 79% of youth reported that they felt they had the necessary knowledge and skills to participate in politics.
• 56% of Black/African American youth believed that leaders in government care very little about people who look like them.
• 48% of Black/African American youth felt that the government treats most immigrants better than it trats most Blacks/African Americans in the United States.
• 93% of Black/African American youth believed that sex education should be mandatory in high schools.
• 66% of females and 57% of males felt that there were too many references to violence in rap music videos.
• 61% of Black/African American youth felt that it is hard for them to get ahead due the amount of discrimination they feel they have to face.
• 67% of Black/African American youth feel that religion is “very important” in their lives (Cohen, 2007).

In the Classroom

The total number of Black/African American students enrolled in schools in 2014 was 7.8 million, and this number is expected to increase to 7.9 million by 2026 (McFarland et al., 2017). Researchers have taken an in-depth look at the academic achievement of Black/African American students and found that many Black/African American students are not achieving at the levels needed to increase their chances of success in college and future careers (Kober, 2011). The achievement gap between Black/African American students and their White counterparts is still problematic. The gap is also reflected in graduation rates. Data from the 2014-2015 school year shows that the national average of all students who graduate in the United States is 83% (McFarland et al., 2017), but the number of Black/ African American students graduating is less (Table 1).  This rate, called the adjusted cohort graduation rate, indicates the number of students who graduate in four years with a regular high school diploma divided by the number of students who form the adjusted cohort for the graduating class.

In order for learning to occur, there are barriers and challenges that should be acknowledged by FCS professionals that may not be as prevalent in other ethnic groups. A discussion of the educational research identifying potential barriers that could hinder learning by Black/African American students follows. This research identifies controversial views that may be uncomfortable to address. However, when we discuss uncomfortable issues in an honest and open manner, the result may be increased levels of awareness and conscientiousness which allow us to be more responsive educators.

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To be Popular or Smart

FCS professionals should consider the often controversial concept that some Black/African American students may not show their true academic abilities for fear of being labeled by peers as “Acting White”. The “Acting White Hypothesis” is described as Black/African American students who do extremely well in school and/or engage in pro-school behaviors to the extent that they are characterized by their peers (usually of the same race) as “Acting White” (Wildhagen, 2011). This concept was first introduced in 1986 by Signithia Fordham and John Ogbu in order to give a plausible explanation for the achievement gap that was present among Black/African American students and their counterparts. Fordham and Ogbu felt that this attitude was adopted as a result of Black/ African American youth wanting to demonstrate their opposition to the majority culture by not valuing academic achievement (as cited in NealBarnett, Stadulis, Singer, Murray, & Demmings, 2010). Unfortunately, there is a perceived thought process among some Black/African American students that if academic excellence is shown within the classroom, then this will somehow diminish their credibility and/ or popularity among their peers.

On the other hand, critics of this theory argue that either additional factors should be taken into account for this theory or that the theory is irrelevant in today’s society. Several researchers have stated that the concept of “Acting White” goes far beyond a student not wanting to display their academic capabilities but is associated more so with speech, dress, values, standards, and music preferences (Neal-Barnett et al., 2010; Wildhagen, 2011; Toldson, 2013). To further question the significance of the “Acting White” theory, Toldson (2013) analyzed data from a CBS News monthly poll which surveyed 1,000 high school students to determine their thoughts on being smart and what they thought of smart students. Of the 262 Black/ African American students who responded to this survey, the following information was discovered:

• When asked if they viewed students who got good grades as cool, normal, weird, boring, or admired, 17% of Black/African American students reported that they would consider these students cool. In addition, 60% of all students (regardless of race or gender) considered students who made good grades as “normal” and really didn’t consider them “weird” or “boring.”
• When asked if they were doing well in school and were proud of their accomplishments and if they would be willing to share this information with their friends, 95% of Black/ African American females said they would be “proud and tell all.”
• When asked how their friends would react if they informed them that they couldn’t hang out because they were doing homework or studying, 45% of Black/African American females and 40% of Black/African American males indicated that their friends would be supportive.

Although the research is split in regards to the significance of this hypothesis as it relates to actual academic achievement, it is still important enough to be mentioned because it is an assumption that many educators hold erroneously. As a result, FCS professionals should at least acknowledge the fact that this may be a potential issue in their classrooms. In addition, their personal assumptions about the issue might have an unintended influence on their students, i.e. reducing classroom expectations because of an assumption that students choose not to be successful. In either case, classroom teachers must work with all students to maximize their potential for academic success.

Disproportionally Disciplined 

Although a wealth of documentation shows that students of color are disciplined at higher rates than other students, Black/African American students appear to have the highest percentages among all racial groups. Researching the disproportionate figures of disciplinary actions of minority groups began in 1975 when a national study was conducted by the Children’s Defense Fund (Rudd, 2014; Butler, Lewis, Moore, & Scott, 2012). This study reported that African American, Hispanic, and Native American students were overrepresented in disciplinary actions. Surprisingly, this study found that one in eight African American students were suspended at least once as opposed to one in 16 Caucasian students. Numerous researchers have looked into the incidences and rates of minority students that are overrepresented in disciplinary actions since this first study. The following are results of various studies that have been conducted in recent years:

• Black/African American students (especially males) receive more out-of-school suspensions and expulsions than White students; when characterized as “overtly aggressive” they were more likely to be disciplined than any other group; and along with Hispanic students, they are arrested or referred to law enforcement officials for an in school-related incidence at a rate of 70% (Rudd, 2014).
• Of Black/African American students, 43% in 6th – 12th grade were suspended at some point during the school year, and 13% were expelled (Aud, Fox, & KewalaRamani, 2010).
• In a national study that focused on the disproportionality of school discipline among African American and Latino students, African American students were twice as likely to receive an office discipline referral (ODR) at the elementary school level with rates increasing to four times more likely at the middle school level (Skiba et al., 2011).
• In a study which looked at access to secondary support for behavioral issues, Black/African American students were underrepresented in being classified as “low risk” (receiving 0-1 ODRs) and overrepresented in being classified as “middle risk” (receiving 2-5 ODRs) and “high risk” (receiving 6+ ODRs) in relation to behavioral failure (Vincent, Tobin, Hawken, & Frank, 2012).
• When selecting among several disciplinary actions for a minor offense, teachers and school administrators chose more severe punishments for Black/African American students than for White students who had the same offense (Rudd, 2014).

Several factors explain why discipline rates are higher for Black/African American students. Rudd (2014) suggested that “cultural deficit thinking” should be considered in that it creates a thought process that African Americans and other marginalized groups (in conjunction with their parents/guardians) do not appreciate the full value of an education. This in turn leads educational professionals to hold negative assumptions on the capabilities, goals, and work ethics of these students which can then greatly increase the chances of educators establishing lower academic expectations, giving less praise, and taking more disciplinary actions.

Skiba et al. (2011) highlighted that students coming from a low SES background are at an increased risk for suspension and that stressors related to poverty may cause students to exhibit behaviors and actions that may be common within their everyday life but are not necessarily aligned with mainstream society. As a result, what is accepted at home may not be acceptable in a school setting which leads to increased disciplinary action.

When looking at the disciplinary actions given to Black/African American male students, Skiba et al. (2011) introduced another factor that centered on cultural mismatch and racial stereotyping. From a cultural mismatch perspective, teachers’ unfamiliarity with social patterns exhibited by their students may cause teachers to interpret actions as combative or argumentative. Regarding racial stereotyping, Neal, McCray, Webb-Johnson, and Bridgist (2003) found that teachers were more likely to judge students who exhibited a “stroll” style of walking as more aggressive, confrontational, and lacking in academic ability regardless of the students ethnic background (as cited in Skiba et al., 2011).

As classroom teachers develop their classroom management plans, they should keep the previously discussed findings in mind. FCS teachers and their students will benefit from having a consistent, effective, and fair classroom management plan. A fair plan can eliminate the feeling of being singled out for specific behaviors that students may have previously experienced, especially if students enter the classroom in a defensive mode feeling as if the teacher will “expect” them to misbehave.

The Special Education Imbalance

Another factor that greatly affects Black/African American students is the disproportionate numbers of students placed in special education classes (Gold and Richards, 2012; Irvine, 2012). There is a direct link to students with disciplinary actions being placed in special education classes at a higher rate; especially when reviewing the number of suspensions and expulsions (Ford, 2012). Black/ African American students who truly have a disability are commonly placed in restrictive settings versus general education classrooms; and both general and special education classes fail to implement culturally responsive strategies that will aide in the academic achievement of Black/African American students (Gold and Richards, 2012).

Before a student is placed in special education classes, there are steps defined by federal law that must be addressed: (1) referral, (2) assessment, (3) eligibility determination, and (4) placement. The inclusion of biases, stereotypes, and prejudices at each of these stages could potentially misdiagnose students as having a special need when, in reality, they do not. The actions at each of these stages may contribute to the disproportionate numbers of Black/African American students in special education classes (Table 2).

Cultural Differences

Understanding the cultural differences of students can go a long way in determining how best to meet their educational needs. Actions and behaviors that may be part of the Black/African American community may not be fully understood by others. As an FCS professional, if you are willing to get to know your students on a personal level, then what you may perceive as a potential “behavioral issue” might also be viewed as part of that student’s culture. Becoming culturally competent by knowing and understanding more about students and families can be a great way to understand the culture of these students (Ford, 2012). These particular misunderstandings can lead teachers to establish low expectations, promote deficit thinking, enhance cultural clashes, and increase misunderstandings. These actions in conjunction with teachers being unaware or dismissive of the importance of culture in teaching and learning can inadvertently cause referrals and placement in special education classes that are inappropriate or inaccurate (Irvine, 2012).

Parental Wariness of the Educational System

Blacks/African Americans have overcome great obstacles to receive education in the United States, and as a result, some parents/guardians feel uneasiness as it relates to the education of their child. Some parents in the Black/African American community believe that teachers purposefully look for signs of developmental delays to justify the diagnosis of ADD/ADHD, mental health problems, or other behavioral problems (Irvine, 2012). Parents/ guardians are sometimes suspicious that their children are placed in special education classes in order to maintain certain accountability standards. In addition, there is a fear that once their children are placed in special education classes, they will never be mainstreamed back into the regular classroom (Irvine, 2012).

Communication Differences

African American English (a.k.a. Black English or Ebonics) is commonly used by many Black/African American students, especially those who come from low income households (Ford, 2012; Gold & Richards, 2012). Common dialects and phrases that are used at home may not be in alignment with formal language (i.e. Standard English) in a school setting. When Black/African American students realize that there is disconnect in communication, they will either struggle to adapt or implement code-switching techniques. Coffey (2008) defined code-switching as “the practice of moving between variations of languages in different contexts” (para. 1). Students who are not able to code switch to Standard English effectively are at a greater risk of being labeled as lower level learners or with having a language deficiency that places them in special education classes (Gold & Richards, 2012). As an FCS professional, it is important to recognize some students may speak in a dialect that is not Standard English. Although there may be universal phrases that are fairly common among the Black/African American community, there is still a possibility that a completely different language is used based on the geographical location of the students. These forms of communication can vary from city to city, state to state, and even region to region. For example, Black/African American students in the southern region of a state may have a completely different form of language than those students found in the northern region of the state. For more information on Code Switching, please refer to the supplemental resources that are located at the end of this chapter.

Another consideration for the classroom is that Black/African American students traditionally come from a culture that promotes long, oral story telling in which embellishments are encouraged (Gold & Richards, 2012). When this form of communication is used in the classroom, it could possibly be perceived by teachers as students not getting to the point quickly enough and using unnecessary information, whereas the students have been taught at home to use supporting details to make their thoughts more vivid and lively. This form of communication is identified as “topic-associative” speech which is the complete opposite of the “topic-centered” speech format that is used in the traditional classroom.

As a result, by not understanding this form of communication style, a teacher could assume that the student is incoherent or lacking appropriate oral skills to make a succinct argument, which may not necessarily be the case.

The American Speech-Language-Hearing Association identifies African American English as an actual language and further states that students should not be identified as having a speech or communication disorder for using African American English (Ford, 2012). The following strategies can be used to respond to communication issues that may be present in your educational setting (Hill, 2009; Coffey, 2012):

• Show students that you understand the historical importance of the language in which they are accustomed to speaking. Never tell students that their home language is wrong and Standard English features are right.
• Communicate goals in a clear manner, and ensure that students understand these goals.
• Explore ways that students express their common ideas before emphasizing grammar rules.
• Explain when certain languages are appropriate and inappropriate.
• Demonstrate code-switching techniques in the classroom, and provide students with safe opportunities to practice the techniques.
• Reassure students that their language is viable and valuable.

Best Practices in Teaching Black/African American Students

The following section will provide you with practical strategies that can be used in the classroom when working with Black/African American students in addition to considerations for developing culturally responsive unit and lesson plans.

Building Relationships with Black/African American Students

Before appropriate instruction can begin, it will be extremely important for you to make a genuine effort to establish a meaningful relationship with your students. Students need to feel as if you care about them and have their best interest at heart. They can easily detect if you are in the classroom to truly make a difference or if you are merely there to draw a regular paycheck.

Students of color (especially Black/African American and Hispanic students) are more likely to exhibit a dependent behavior toward their teachers (Irvine, 2012). These same students may perform poorly when they do not like their teacher and/or feel as if their teacher doesn’t genuinely care about them. Deciding to become a culturally responsive educator is the first step in developing meaningful relationships with your students. Culturally responsive educators sincerely work to understand, respect, and meet the educational needs of their students whose cultural backgrounds may be completely different from their own (Ford & Kea, 2009). Figure 4 highlights the major characteristics of culturally responsive educators.

 Learning Styles of Black/African American Students

As future FCS educators, you are likely familiar with learning styles and theories such as right brain/left brain learners, visual-auditory-kinesthetic learners (most commonly referred to as VAK), and even Howard Gardener’s Multiple Intelligence theory, just to name a few. Ford and Key (2009) highlighted nine learning characteristics and appropriate instructional strategies which should be considered in addition to other learning theories when working with Black/ African American students (Table 3). Please keep in mind that some of your students may exhibit many, few, or none of the characteristics that are described; however, establishing meaningful connections with your students can help you to determine which learning style(s) to address when developing lessons.

Raising Critical Consciousness with Critical Science 

Critical science has emerged as an important curriculum perspective for FCS. Using the Critical science approach with curriculum development and classroom instruction necessitates acknowledgement of the cultures, conditions, and trends of society and is characterized as:

• Developing human relationships that are cooperative and equal rather than coercive, individualistic, and patriarchal.
• Respecting all cultures (and peoples) rather than seeing Western cultures (and professionals) as superior.
• Using an integrative approach to understand individuals within the context of their families as well as the context of their social, political, economic, and cultural environments (Thomas 1998).

These characteristics of the critical science approach, when modeled by the classroom teacher, empower students to be successful learners, confident individuals, responsible citizens, and active contributors to their households and communities. (More information is available in the chapters on critical science).

Foundational to critical science is the examination of perennial problems— reoccurring issues or problems in life that require resolution. Using a critical science approach nurtures critical thinking and creation of new ideas, both vital to motivating African American students. Pitre et al. (2009) stated:

 “Ultimately, the education of African American students must entail a curriculum that incorporates the knowledge of self. The knowledge of self helps connect students to each of the disciplines that they are studying… problem-posing education is essential to the education of African American students. This means that education should also include problems to be solved” (p. 44). 

Implementation Guidelines 

As discussed in the To Be Popular or Smart section of this chapter, Black/African American students can feel pressured to choose between being Black and being smart. The perception that being smart is equal to being White is an obstacle that educators must acknowledge. Billings (2009) states, “There are some good teachers out there who can help African American students choose academic excellence and yet not compromise their cultural identities” (p. 139). The question then becomes, how do educators accomplish this? How do educators incorporate culturally relevant teaching practices? To answer these questions, view Gloria Ladson-Billings’ video published in 2015.

Now, take time to review the above tips that teachers should consider when developing curriculum. This may assist in creating appropriate lesson objectives and standards.

Students are responsible for thinking, communicating their struggles, being present and punctual, and taking responsibility for in-class and out-of-class assignments. In an ideal world, all students would be motivated to take on these responsibilities; however, many students have difficulty being responsible for their education possibly because of problems at home or behavioral, social, or emotional issues. FCS educators must be motivated to find solutions to these matters by getting to know their students and applying best practices to instruction and classroom management plans, for example using the Critical Science approach.

Summary

African American educational opportunities have improved from the oppressive policies and procedures endured for almost a century. The education profession now recognizes that culture makes us all unique beings and influences our values, hopes, perceptions, fears, and loyalties. Teaching students from diverse backgrounds can be overwhelming and challenging, but the real challenge is remaining committed. As FCS educators, we must seek to understand the culture of our students and communities and implement curriculum that reflects high standards, tolerance, and flexibility.

KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER

1. African Americans have a history of oppression (civil and human rights), segregation, and racial tracking that has affected the perception of the trustworthiness of the educational system.
2. The educational attainment of African American students, especially from lower SES households, has been negatively affected by a lack of emotional, social, community, and financial resources.
3. FCS educators must reflect on their own biases and seek change in order to establish a genuine relationship with African American students.
4. Culturally responsive educators promote diversity, immerse themselves in diverse environments, and adopt culturally responsive practices and principles.

Check for Understanding

1. Research the history of African Americans in your community to learn about your community’s history. Present this research to your classmates using innovative technology.
2. Explore your perceptions of African American students by completing the reflective activity, Unveiling Your Assumptions. What were the assumptions that you held, and how have these assumptions changed by watching the video and completing the activity? What steps will you take to facilitate culturally competent learning?
3. Review your state and local FCS curriculum and determine whether or not it incorporates culturally diverse teaching strategies? If so, discuss examples that you plan to implement. If not, develop strategies that are more culturally diverse for your classroom.
4. Prepare a plan with explanations to build community in culturally diverse classrooms.
5. Describe the steps you would take and the various strategies you could use to ensure African American students apply what they learn in your class to everyday obstacles they may face.
6. Prepare a classroom management plan to address learners in a culturally diverse classroom.
7. Conduct a field experience in a background other than your own. Pick a topic from the chapter (e.g., special education or codeswitching), and see if you can observe this topic in the classroom. Write a 1 page paper on your findings and how you feel about what you observed.
8. Explore the history of Blacks/ African Americans in the development of the FCS profession. Create a timeline of these contributions, and share a lesson that highlights some of these accomplishments.

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About the Authors

Ms. LaToya N. Johnson; Lecturer, Department of Family and Consumer Sciences, South Carolina State University.  Ms. Johnson has taught on the secondary and post-secondary levels.  She has taught undergraduate courses in educational processes in FCS professions, home environment technology, human sexuality, instructional strategies in FCS, internship experiences in FCS, introduction to FCS, meal management, marriage and family relationships, nutrition and foods, professional foundations in FCS, professional perspectives in FCS, and research & evaluation in FCS.  In addition, she also has experience in supervising student teachers.  Her research focus is on professional development for FCS teachers and teaching students from impoverished backgrounds.  ljohn1@scsu.edu

Ms. Arnessa Dotson is a Family and Consumer Sciences Education teacher at Coronado High School in Lubbock, TX. She is the Coronado Family, Career, & Community Leaders of America (FCCLA) Chapter Advisor, Coronado Dance Club Advisor, and the Black Student Union (BSU) Advisor. She received her Master’s Degree in 2014 from Texas Tech University and volunteers for several local social service agencies. adotson14@lubbockisd.org

Image Credits

[16-1] Table created and provided by authors via Microsoft Office. Data taken from  https://nces.ed.gov/ pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2017144.