Introduction

Within a Native American community, many individuals and families have been oppressed because of poverty, political unrest, and historical events. Family and consumer sciences teachers working in districts with a Native American population need to understand the historical and cultural aspects of the community. While valuing the Native American culture of the local community is imperative, teachers must also provide students with opportunities to recognize their individual diversity. Teaching strategies that regularly incorporate multicultural approaches will help students acquire attitudes, knowledge and skills needed to function in a variety of community and social situations (Banks, 2004). Ideally, students should feel empowered because of their diversity. Before reading the rest of this chapter, please direct your attention to the sidebar on the following page where the Key Terms listed below are fully defined. Having working knowledge of this vocabulary is important in understanding and applying the content of this chapter.

Key Terms to Know

Culture

Diversity

Indian

Knowledge/Belief system

Native American

Native American Pacific Islander

Personal/Value system

Social equality

Culture is a complex system of values, beliefs, and norms shared by a group of individuals. The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development (2008) defines culture as the integrated pattern of human knowledge, belief, and behavior that depends on the capacity for learning and transmitting knowledge to succeeding generations. Knowledge and beliefs are the cognitive functions identified by how people think, what is valued, and the understanding of themselves and the world around them. Behavior is what people actually do, the activities carried out, and the relationships entered into and sustained. The capacity for learning is affected by the objects or materials used to solve practical problems and to symbolize success for themselves and their community.

Classroom culture created by the educator significantly impacts the outcomes for students. Learning activities should focus on helping students better understand the impact of their experiences on their knowledge, behaviors, and attitudes (Banks, 2004). Educators working with diverse groups must provide opportunities for students to clarify their cultural identification and to develop an identity within their cultural community. This can occur only when students identify with and respect their culture and identity. The environment within the classroom needs to allow students to express their views openly and to be treated fairly, avoiding an “us vs. them” mindset. When students feel an ownership to the group they belong, understanding of differences will be more accepted.

Educators must also remember that they bring to the classroom their own experiences and are faced with the challenges of acknowledging and respecting the culture and knowledge of the students. The overall goal should be to create an environment that facilitates sharing of differences while recognizing common values needed to improve the well-being of individuals, families, and communities.

Values and beliefs prominent in the Native American culture are harmony with and respect for nature and an emphasis on family, tradition, group cooperation rather than on individual achievement. The perspective for Native American children is that people (i.e., families) are very important and possessions are valued so they can be shared with others (Gilliland, 1999). Examples of experiences, values, and beliefs that are general to Native American culture are presented in Table 1.

Table 1 Cultural Experiences, Values, and Beliefs of Native American Students

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Who are Native American Students?

For all individuals and families, contextual influences impact thinking and behavior. Moore and Asay (2013) categorize contextual influences as historical, environmental, and cultural influences in relationship to how families manage their resources. These influences can also be used to describe and understand an ethnic group.

Probably the most significant historical influence for Native Americans is the reservation system. Utter (2001) describes an Indian reservation as an area of land reserved for Indian bands, villages, nations, or tribes to live on and use. Tribes were considered to have specific rites to ownership to the land in which they lived and inhabited. Treaties that created reservations were in exchange for peace, protection, rations, goods, services, and in some cases less-than-desirable land. Many Native American tribes that were located in the plains area of the United States traditionally lived a nomadic lifestyle. Moving to a reservation required these tribes to adapt to living in a more permanent situation. Changes such as these created problems in obtaining food and meeting basic needs because hunting and gathering was not possible. While Government resources, such as food and shelter, were available to help meet the needs, Native Americans still needed to learn new skills that differed from traditional patterns. For decades, families struggled to figure out how to adapt to the non-nomadic lifestyle. Students who attend schools on or near reservations will have been raised in households who have experienced limited resources needed to meet basic needs. In some cases, reliance on government resources to meet the needs is a standard way of life. This reliance on the resources creates a situation in which individuals learned there isn’t a need to plan ahead because goods and services are expected.

Environmental influences include availability and accessibility of resources needed to meet basic needs (Moore & Asay, 2013). Many Native American reservations are located in remote areas. Availability of jobs are contributed to the economic condition of the community and can impact affordability of needed resources.

Culture is the third context Moore and Asay (2013) identify as an influence on how individuals use and manage their resources. As we address the Native American culture, it is important to acknowledge the one characteristic that is common for all Native American cultures; native values, beliefs, and ways of doing things have endured and are deeply embedded in the day-to-day activities and relationships within native communities (The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development, 2008).

Cultural Differences and the Learning Process

Castagno and Brayboy (2008) recognized five tribal cultural practices and cultural differences between Native Americans and non-natives. These differences are the way people show they are paying attention and giving respect, their meaning of passive behavior, their willingness of people to influence others, their linguistic and social interactions, and their meaning and use of silence. These practices may give the impression that Native American students do not want to interact or build a relationship with non-Native students and teachers. Connecting the learning style characteristics to these practices makes sense. Students who learn best by being reflective and observant and by understanding the big picture when learning a new concept are going to be quiet, more passive, and less likely to speak up or seek out attention.

Suggestions for Lesson Planning and Curriculum Development

When working with any ethnic group, the teacher needs to be aware that their students’ personal experiences and culture and the influence those play on teaching or presentation style. As teachers, we have a tendency to use the methods and strategies that are a natural fit with our learning styles and these might not be the best approaches for our students. An awareness of the differences in preferred teaching style and learning style of the audience will lead to more successful outcomes.

Native American students learn best with visual or mental images instead of word associations. They benefit from hands-on experiences that connect to real life situations. Through direct experiences, such as volunteering, service learning or job shadowing, students are able to participate in real world activities. When presenting new content, students learn best if they are able to see the overall picture before the details. Native American students learn best through observations, reflection, collaboration, and a holistic approach (Gilliland, 1999).

When developing curriculum or course lessons, the focus should be to introduce students to another perspective or way of thinking about the content. In some cases, this may conflict with what the Native American students know and have experienced. In the family and consumer sciences (FCS) classroom, content will focus on applying skills and knowledge to improve the well-being of individuals, families, and communities. Students need to be guided to think about how they will integrate the content within their present and future experiences to improve well-being. Be careful to not regard what students know from their experiences as wrong information. What students know will be the basis for making a connection to new information.

The following guidelines will assist in developing classroom activities to focus on learning styles and characteristics of Native American students. Guidelines include making the content meaningful and relevant, focusing on expression of opinion and active learning, incorporating thinking and processing skills, and considering global issues and assessment.

Guidelines for Developing Classroom Activities

Meaningful Content

Content in all FCS courses inherently focuses on developing knowledge and skills that will improve well-being. Presenting meaningful content for Native American students creates a context for connecting personal experiences to the subject. When selecting a textbook or supplemental reading materials, evaluate for depth of information and relevance of the content. Consider the perspective of the students in regard to what is familiar to them and how well they will be able to apply the content to their personal experiences. Be aware of biases presented in the content that may create an inaccurate stereotype of an ethnic group or a barrier for students within the class to become engaged in the lesson.

When developing learning experiences, evaluate how well the course objectives, experiences, and content tie together. Present examples that reflect the Native American culture, such as using traditional names and events when developing case studies and review questions. Recognize various learning styles to present the content, such a using pictures and graphs for visual learners or stories and case studies for verbal learners. Consider cross-curricular connections. For example, when teaching a nutrition unit that discusses menu planning, create different family scenarios that take into account the value of extended family. Have students develop a plan that includes the number of family members who usually are living in the family home who will be present for meals. Move away from planning for the traditional nuclear family.

Relevance

Relevance means connected to the matter at hand. Once meaningful content is identified, consider how to connect content to students’ life experiences or current issues relevant to them. By relating instruction to everyday life experiences, students will be motivated to learn and apply the content. Relevance should be considered when selecting the reading materials, media and learning experiences. Remember to create a balance between cultural experiences, personal characteristics, and knowledge.

In the Native American culture, children learn at home from parents and family through observation and imitation. Show students how the content can be applied to their home and family life by developing learning experiences that can be applied at home. Do not avoid controversial topics, but do approach in a neutral manner. Discuss issues that individuals and groups may find difficult to address, and be aware of possible conflict. Encourage students to talk to each other about how they see the content being applied to themselves personally. For example, in a personal finance course where students may come from low-income families, do not marginalize the income shortfall to which students may be accustomed. When teaching key concepts, have students provide examples about how they see their families utilize resources and how their observation is connected to the content. This will provide a neutral situation for students to evaluate their personal experiences and make decisions about how to apply the new knowledge at home.

Focus on Expression of Opinion

Native students respect their elders, live in harmony with nature, and value expression of ideas. Provide opportunities for students to give input to the relevance of the content by constructing their own thoughts and interpretations through discussion, writing, or some other form of expression. Be aware of the personal nature of the topic; consider having students share one-on-one with a partner instead of to the whole group. Create a culture in the classroom where verbal responses are not the only indication students are engaged and able to express their opinion. Native Americans respect other’s privacy and dignity, so students may not be comfortable sharing personal stories. Focus discussions more on the experience and less on the personal perspective, so students feel comfortable about sharing.

How has the historical change in lifestyle influenced Native American students today?

Results of a study conducted by the First Nations Oweesta Corporation help us to better understand native youth (Anderson, Jorgensen, Brantmeier, & Mandell, 2008). Participants of were from high schools in Montana, New Mexico, and South Dakota and had populations of 60% or more Native American students. Eighty-one percent of the participants reported living on a reservation (Anderson et al., 2008) and a secondary analysis of the data by Saboe-Wounded Head (2010) found that 76% of the participants described themselves a Native American.

Census data (2011) found the employment status of the population 16 years and over for American Indians and Alaska Natives (AIAN) to be 64% in the labor force, this data includes all AIAN who live on and off reservations. Occupations varied with the majority being management, business, science and arts (36%) and sales and office occupations (25%). The class of workers were identified as private wage and salary workers (79%) and government workers (15%). Earnings received from Government assistance programs included Supplemental Security Income (mean income $8940), cash public assistance ($3800) and Food Stamps/SNAP benefits. Even though the median household income was $50,502 the percentage of families with related children under 18 years living at or below the poverty level was 19%. Forty-one percent for families with a female head of household and related children under 18.

Another situation that has been found to impact income is education level. An analysis of the Oweesta data found 10% of the participant’s parents did not complete high school, 30% completed high school, 26% completed some college and 29% completed college (Saboe-Wounded Head, 2010). In comparison to census data (2011), the population who was 25 years or older 14% did not complete high school, 28% completed high school, 29% completed some college and 28% completed college. Skills and knowledge gained through education will impact the type of work parents and families engage.

Incorporate Thinking and Processing Skills

Decision-making and problem-solving involve thinking and processing skills. Native American students learn best when they are able to see the overall picture before the details. To help students develop these skills, teachers can demonstrate a concept for students to observe. Then, students should have an opportunity to practice the concept to reinforce their understanding. It is crucial for the teacher to model the concept and allow time for thinking and processing skills to be utilized in making a decision to solve the problem presented. Native American students will likely consider the outcomes of their past experiences. As students are “trying out” the new concept, they will become more confident in their abilities and increase their level of understanding.

Case studies can be used to develop thinking and processing skills (Barkley, 2010). A case study will engage students because of the emphasis on real world application, but it will allow for ingrained anonymity relating to a personal situation. As a teacher, when developing or selecting appropriate case studies, keep in mind the connection to content and relevance. Students should be able to apply concepts by relating outcomes of personal experiences to the decisions that need to be made to solve the problem. When completing in groups, case study assignments will involve discussion and sharing. Students should be able to express their opinion both verbally and in writing.

Focus on Active Learning

Active learning involves personalizing an idea, a concept, or a solution by connecting it to something we know or want to be able to know (Barkley, 2010; Jackson, 1993). Another way to explain active learning is that it gives students an opportunity to “do something” with the content. There are many active learning techniques that are designed to engage thinking by examining, questioning, and relating new ideas to old ideas. Examples of active learning strategies are listed in Table 2.

Cooperation and sharing are two important characteristics of the Native American culture. Activities should center on people, not things, by focusing on the relationships between students and building trust within the group. Be aware of the intended outcome of the activity. Activities should be non-competitive, so the outcome is not winning but creating a project or solving a problem as a group. As the teacher, step away from controlling the activity by letting students take their own initiative. Focus on developing the ability of the group to produce high-quality work, which will foster development of self-esteem and confidence. Hands-on activities give students a chance to do something interactive but to also express their opinion and use thinking and processing skills.

Consider Global Issues

Global issues are social concerns that affect the human population both locally and globally. When addressing an issue, consider how the issue impacts and/or relates to the local and the worldwide community. Poverty is an example of a global issue. If the Native American students are personally experiencing poverty, it would be difficult for them to want to find a solution to the problem in a third world country unless a connection is made to the local issues. Consider how the content can be related to the community and extended globally to focus on how students can have a part in improving human and capital resources for their families.

Assessment

What is the objective? What is the outcome? How will students’ progress be evaluated? Does the assessment take into consideration the various experiences (starting points) of each student? How will mastery of a skill be evaluated? When developing lesson plans and curriculum, teachers must identify objectives and outcomes. Throughout the unit/lesson, provide formative feedback through encouragement that provides adjustments and corrections and extends learning. Be specific in explaining to the students what they should learn and the purpose of the activity and assignment in relation to the outcome. Develop alternative forms of assessment rather than exams. See Table 2 for suggested alternative forms of assessment. Communicating the objectives and outcomes of the lesson helps students take ownership of their learning.

Summary 

Native American students bring a unique mix of cultural experiences, personal values, prior knowledge, and beliefs to the classroom. Students from the same community may even have differences in their identity based on their unique combination of characteristics. Acknowledging this diversity enhances the teaching and learning experience in every classroom. Assimilation and differential exclusion do not support the diverse identities that can be present in the classroom. These approaches within educational setting discourage students from acknowledging their differences. Using multiculturalism and the transnational approach, we as teachers can recognize the differences in students and encourage them to develop their diverse identities. To this end, constructivism can promote reflection on experiences to develop meaning and understanding concerning one’s culture. The emphasis is on the learner and not the teacher, so active learning, expression of opinions, and authentic assessment are encouraged. For more information on constructivism and it’s implementation, see the chapter titled Using Constructivism.

References

Allison, B. N., & Rehm, M. L. (2007). Teaching strategies for diverse learners in FCS classrooms. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 99(2), 8-10.

Anderson, W., Jorgensen, M., Brantmeier, N., & Mandell, L. (2008). Deepending our understanding of the financial educaton of Native youth: An in-depth look at Native students in Montana, New Mexico, and South Dakota. Rapid City, SD: First Nations Oweesta Corporation, Jump$tart Coalition for Personal Financial Literacy.

Banks, J. A. (Ed.). (2004). Diversity and citizenship education: Global perspectives. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Barkley, E. F. (2010). Student engagement techniques: A handbook for college faculty. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Castagno, A. E., & Brayboy, B. M. J. (2008). Culturally responsive schooling for indigenous youth: A review of literature. Review of Educational Research, 78(4), 941-993.

Castles, S. (2004). Migration, citizenship, and education. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Diversity and Citizenship Education: Global Perspectives. San Francisco: Jossey-Basset.

Gilliland, H. (1999). Teaching the Native American (4 ed.). Dubuque, IA: Kendall/Hunt Publishing Company.

Jackson, T. (1993). Activities that teach. Sedona, AZ: Red Rock Publishing.

Merriam, S. B., & Caffarella, R. S. (1999). Learning in adulthood: A comprehensive guide (2nd ed.). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass

Moore, T. J., & Asay, S. M. (2013). Family resource management (2nd ed.). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

Ong, A. (2004). Higher learning: Educational availability and flexible citizenship in global space. In J. A. Banks (Ed.), Diversity and citizenship education: Global perspective. San Francisco: Jossey-Basset.

Saboe-Wounded Head, L. (2010). Influences on Native American high school student’s financial knowledge and behavior. (Doctoral Dissertation). ProQuest Dissertations and Theses database. (AA13403855).

Silberman, M. (1995). 101 ways to make training active. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

The Harvard Project on American Indian Economic Development. (2008). The state of the native nations: Conditions under US policies of self-determination. New York: Oxford University Press.

United States Census Bureau. (2011). American community survey. Retrieved from http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?src=bkmk

Utter, J. (2001). American Indians: Answers to today’s questions (2nd ed.). Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press

Image Credits

[15-1] Table created and provided by authors via Microsoft Office. Information from author.