30 Chapter 30: Fermentation

Lisa Limeri

Learning Objectives

By the end of this section, students will be able to:

  • Explain how cells obtain energy from glucose in the absence of oxygen.

Introduction

In aerobic respiration, the final electron acceptor is an oxygen molecule, O2. If aerobic respiration occurs, then ATP will be produced using the energy of high-energy electrons carried by NADH or FADH2 to the electron transport chain. If aerobic respiration does not occur, NADH must be reoxidized to NAD+ for reuse as an electron carrier for the glycolytic pathway to continue. How is this done? Some living systems use an organic molecule as the final electron acceptor. Processes that use an organic molecule to regenerate NAD+ from NADH are collectively referred to as fermentation. In contrast, in some living systems, the electron transport chain (ETC) uses an inorganic molecule as a final electron acceptor, which is called anaerobic cellular respiration. Both processes allow organisms to convert energy for their use in the absence of oxygen. Both methods are called anaerobic cellular respiration, in which organisms convert energy for their use in the absence of oxygen.

Reading Question #1

What is the main purpose of fermentation in anaerobic respiration?

A. To generate ATP from glucose

B. To convert carbon dioxide to methane

C. To regenerate NAD+ from NADH

D. To produce water as the final electron acceptor

 

Link to Learning

Visit this link and watch this video for a demonstration of fermentation: https://youtu.be/Cngt2HmJuSo?si=PvrQBuvR3wiJk43v

Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

Certain prokaryotes, including some species in the domains Bacteria and Archaea, use anaerobic respiration. For example, a group of archaeans called methanogens reduces carbon dioxide to methane to oxidize NADH. These microorganisms are found in soil and in the digestive tracts of ruminants, such as cows and sheep. Similarly, sulfate-reducing bacteria, most of which are anaerobic (Fig 30.1), reduce sulfate to hydrogen sulfide to regenerate NAD+ from NADH.

Figure 30.1. The green color seen in these coastal waters is from an eruption of hydrogen sulfide–producing bacteria. These anaerobic, sulfate-reducing bacteria release hydrogen sulfide gas as they decompose algae in the water. (credit: modification of work by NASA/Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Land Rapid Response Team at NASA GSFC, Visible Earth Catalog of NASA images)
Figure 30.1. The green color seen in these coastal waters is from an eruption of hydrogen sulfide–producing bacteria. These anaerobic, sulfate-reducing bacteria release hydrogen sulfide gas as they decompose algae in the water. (Credit)

Lactic Acid Fermentation

The fermentation method used by animals and certain bacteria, such as those in yogurt, is lactic acid fermentation (Fig 30.2). This type of fermentation is used routinely in mammalian red blood cells, which do not have mitochondria, and in skeletal muscle that has an insufficient oxygen supply to allow aerobic respiration to continue (that is, in muscles used to the point of fatigue). In muscles, lactic acid accumulation must be removed by the blood circulation, and when the lactic acid loses a hydrogen, the resulting lactate is brought to the liver for further metabolism. The chemical reactions of lactic acid fermentation are the following:

Pyruvic acid+NADH↔lactic acid+NAD+The enzyme used in this reaction is lactate dehydrogenase. The reaction can proceed in either direction, but the reaction from left to right is inhibited by acidic conditions. Such lactic acid accumulation was once believed to cause muscle stiffness, fatigue, and soreness, although more recent research disputes this hypothesis. Once the lactic acid has been removed from the muscle and circulated to the liver, it can be reconverted into pyruvic acid and further catabolized for energy.

Figure 30.1 During glycolysis, glucose is oxidized to pyruvate while NAD+ is reduced to NADH. Two molecules of ATP are also produced by substrate level phosphorylation. In the absence of oxygen in some cell types, fermentation allows the reduction of pyruvate to lactate and the reoxidation of NADH to NAD+. The regeneration of NAD+ allows glycolysis to continue to make ATP by substrate level phosphorylation.
Figure 30.2 During glycolysis, glucose is oxidized to pyruvate while NAD+ is reduced to NADH. Two molecules of ATP are also produced by substrate level phosphorylation. In the absence of oxygen in some cell types, fermentation allows the reduction of pyruvate to lactate and the reoxidation of NADH to NAD+. The regeneration of NAD+ allows glycolysis to continue to make ATP by substrate level phosphorylation. (Credit)

Tremetol, a metabolic poison found in the white snakeroot plant, prevents the metabolism of lactate. When cows eat this plant, tremetol is concentrated in the milk they produce. Humans who consume the milk can become seriously ill. Symptoms of this disease, which include vomiting, abdominal pain, and tremors, become worse after exercise. Why do you think this is the case?

Reading Question #2

Which of the following is the end product of lactic acid fermentation?

A. Ethanol

B. Carbon dioxide

C. Lactic acid

D. Pyruvic acid

Alcohol Fermentation

Another familiar fermentation process is alcohol fermentation (Fig 30.3), which produces ethanol. The first chemical reaction of alcohol fermentation is the following (CO2 does not participate in the second reaction):

pyruvic acid+H+→CO2+acetaldehyde+NADH+H+→ethanol+NAD+

pyruvic acid+H+→CO2+acetaldehyde+NADH+H+→ethanol+NAD+ 

The first reaction is catalyzed by pyruvate decarboxylase, a cytoplasmic enzyme, with a coenzyme of thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP, derived from vitamin B1 and also called thiamine). A carboxyl group is removed from pyruvic acid, releasing carbon dioxide as a gas. The loss of carbon dioxide reduces the size of the molecule by one carbon, producing acetaldehyde. The second reaction is catalyzed by alcohol dehydrogenase to oxidize NADH to NAD+ and reduce acetaldehyde to ethanol. The fermentation of pyruvic acid by yeast produces the ethanol found in alcoholic beverages. Ethanol tolerance of yeast is variable, ranging from about 5% to 21%, depending on the yeast strain and environmental conditions.

Figure 30.3. Fermentation of grape juice into wine produces CO2 as a byproduct. Fermentation tanks have valves so that the pressure inside the tanks created by the carbon dioxide produced can be released.
Figure 30.3. Fermentation of grape juice into wine produces CO2 as a byproduct. Fermentation tanks have valves so that the pressure inside the tanks created by the carbon dioxide produced can be released. (Credit)

Reading Question #3

What type of fermentation process is used by yeast to produce ethanol in alcoholic beverages?

A. Lactic acid fermentation

B. Alcohol fermentation

C. Carbon dioxide fermentation

D. Acetaldehyde fermentation

Other Types of Fermentation

Other fermentation methods take place in bacteria. We should note that many prokaryotes are facultatively anaerobic. This means that they can switch between aerobic respiration and fermentation, depending on the availability of free oxygen. Certain prokaryotes, such as Clostridia, are obligate anaerobes. Obligate anaerobes live and grow in the absence of molecular oxygen. Oxygen is a poison to these microorganisms and kills them on exposure. We should also note that all forms of fermentation, except lactic acid fermentation, produce gas. The production of particular types of gas is used as an indicator of the fermentation of specific carbohydrates, which plays a role in the laboratory identification of the bacteria. Various methods of fermentation are used by assorted organisms to ensure an adequate supply of NAD+ for the sixth step in glycolysis. Without these pathways, this step would not occur, and ATP could not be harvested from the breakdown of glucose.

Reading Question #4

Which of the following is NOT a purpose of fermentation?

A. Regenerating NAD+ for glycolysis

B. Producing gas as a byproduct

C. Converting glucose to pyruvic acid

D. Generating ATP efficiently in the presence of oxygen

Reading Question #5

What is the main function of pyruvate decarboxylase in alcohol fermentation?

A. To convert pyruvic acid into lactic acid

B. To release carbon dioxide from pyruvic acid

C. To produce ethanol from acetaldehyde

D. To regenerate NAD+ from NADH

Acknowledgements

Adapted from Clark, M.A., Douglas, M., and Choi, J. (2018). Biology 2e. OpenStax. Retrieved from https://openstax.org/books/biology-2e/pages/1-introduction

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Introductory Biology I Copyright © by Lisa Limeri is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.

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